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Article ID: 285059 - Last Review: July 2, 2010 - Revision: 5.0
How to create a table of contents by marking text in Word
View products that this article applies to.
This article was previously published under Q285059
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* SUMMARY
o Create Table of Contents
o Mark the Text to Include in the Table of Contents
+ Use Lead-in Emphasis with Heading Styles
+ Use Style Separators with Heading Styles
+ Removing a Heading from the Table of Contents
* REFERENCES

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SUMMARY
One of the most common features of professional documents is the table of conte...
One of the most common features of professional documents is the table of contents (TOC). Microsoft Word makes the creation of a TOC easier by allowing you the option of creating a TOC without using styles and by allowing you to mark a single word or group of words in a particular body of text and add that information to the TOC.

A TOC can be generated by using the Lead-in Emphasis feature to apply heading styles to any lead-in text (the first word or words in a paragraph or sentence). By using the Lead-in Emphasis feature, you can create paragraphs where the first portion of the paragraph is formatted with a heading style and appears in the TOC, but the rest of the paragraph is normal text and does not appear in the TOC. This article describes how to use this new feature to create a TOC.


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Create Table of Contents
In Word, you can create a TOC based on a portion of the text in a paragraph without including the whole paragraph. You can mark text by using the Lead-in Emphasis feature with heading styles to include the text in a TOC.

To insert a table of contents, follow these steps:

1. Start Word, and then open your document.
2. Click an empty paragraph where you want to insert the TOC.
3. On the Insert menu, point to Reference, and then click Index and Tables.

Note In Microsoft Office Word 2007 or in Word 2010, click Table of Contents in the Table of Contents group on the References tab. Then, click Insert Table of Contents.
4. Click the Table of Contents tab, and then click Show Outlining Toolbar.

Note In Word 2007 or in Word 2010, skip this step.
5. In the Index and Tables dialog box, select the options that you want to apply to your TOC, and then click OK.

Note In Word 2007 or in Word 2010, select the options that you want to apply to the TOC in the Table of Contents dialog box, and then click OK.

Note If the text that is contained in your document is not marked to be included in a TOC, you receive the following error message in your document instead of the TOC:
Error! No table of contents entries found.

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Mark the Text to Include in the Table of Contents
The next step is to mark the text that you want to include in your TOC by using Lead-in Emphasis with heading styles. Use one or more of the following methods to mark text that you want to include in the TOC.


Use Lead-in Emphasis with Heading Styles

1. Select any lead-in text in your document that you want to include in your TOC. For example, you may have a paragraph that includes lead-in text to introduce the remainder of the paragraph's text. In the following paragraph, if you want to include the introductory words "Widow and Orphan" in your TOC, just select these words, and then continue with the steps.
Widow and Orphan: A widow is the last line of a paragraph printed by itself at the top of a page. An orphan is the first line of a paragraph printed by itself at the bottom of a page.
2. Click the drop-down arrow in the Style box on the Formatting toolbar, and then select the heading that you want.

Note In Word 2007 or in Word 2010, click the heading style that you want in the Styles group on the Home tab.
3. Click Update TOC on the Outlining toolbar to update the TOC.

Note In Word 2007 or in Word 2010, click Update Table in the Table of Contents group on the References tab.
4. In the Update Table of Contents dialog box, click Update the Entire table, and then click OK.

Note In Word 2007 or in Word 2010, click Update the Entire table in the Update Table of Contents dialog box.

If you click Show/Hide on the standard toolbar, note that there are no special characters in the paragraph to indicate lead-in emphasis applied to the text. However, the text formatted as a heading level appears in the document's TOC. Because no hidden paragraph markers or other items are used, the whole process is seamless. Word uses a new underlying feature named "Linked character styles" to do this.

The heading style applied to the lead-in portion of the document is displayed as a heading style, but it is actually a linked character style. In Word 2002 and later, when you apply a paragraph style to a subset of paragraph, the following behavior occurs:

* A hidden character style is created that takes the same character properties as the paragraph style being applied.
* The character style is applied to the selection.

NOTE: The hidden character style created with linked character styles appears in the Style drop-down list if the document is opened and viewed in earlier versions of Word. The functionality of the style separator is lost if the document is saved in an earlier version of Word.

To view the hidden character style, follow these steps:

1. On the Format menu, click Reveal Formatting.

The Reveal Formatting task pane appears.

Note To open the Reveal Formatting task pane in Word 2007 or in Word 2010, follow these steps:
1. Click the Styles dialog box launcher in the Styles group on the Home tab.
2. In the Styles window, click Style Inspector.
3. Click Reveal Formatting.
2. Select the text in your document and notice that exact formatting details appear in the Reveal Formatting task pane.
3. Select the text that has the character style applied and note that the text appears as a character style in the Reveal Formatting task pane. The linked style appears as Heading Char in the Reveal Formatting task pane. The actual character style remains hidden in the Styles and Formatting task pane or the Style drop-down list on the Formatting toolbar.

Any paragraph style can be used for the linked character style. A paragraph style can be created that looks exactly like the body text paragraph style, and then applied to a portion of a paragraph. In this manner, the text that is used to build the TOC can exactly match the text in the paragraph, assuming the TOC options are modified to include the style for the lead-in text.


Use Style Separators with Heading Styles
The style separator is a new feature to Word 2003 and Word 2002. Style separator tags allow you to do the following:

* Apply heading styles to a single word or phrase in a paragraph so that only that word or phrase appears in the TOC.
* Include two styles in a single paragraph so that the lead-in paragraph appears in the TOC.
* Apply outline levels to lead-in text so that only the lead-in text appears in the TOC.
* Apply outline levels to a single word or phrase in a paragraph so that only that word or phrase appears in the TOC.

The style separator is a hidden paragraph mark that serves as a delineator between separate styles applied in a document. To make the style separator mark visible, follow these steps:

1. On the Tools menu, click Options.
2. On the View tab, click All under Formatting Marks.

Before you can use the Style Separator feature, you must add the Style Separator button to your toolbar:

1. Click Customize on the Tools menu.
2. Click the Commands tab, and then click All Commands in the Categories list.
3. Locate InsertStyleSeparator in the Commands list, and then drag it to the Formatting toolbar. Click Close.

Note To add the Style Separator button to the toolbar in Office Word 2007 or in Word 2010, follow these steps:

1. Click the Microsoft Office button, and then click Word Options.
2. Click Customize.
3. In the Choose commands from list, click All Commands.
4. In the list of commands, click Sytle Separator, click Add, and then click OK.


Insert the style separator before you apply the heading style to your text. To do this, use one of the following methods.

Method A: Use Style Separators to add a single word or phrase in a paragraph to the TOC:

1. As you type, and you reach a word or phrase in a paragraph that you want to include in the TOC, click the Style Separator button. When you click the Style Separator button, the insertion point moves to the right of the separator so that you can continue typing.
2. Type the word or phrase that you want to include in the TOC, and then click the Style Separator button again.
3. Select the word or phrase that you want to include in the TOC, click the drop-down arrow in the Style box on the Formatting toolbar, and then select the heading that you want.

The word or phrase between the two style separators appears in the TOC.

Method B: Insert the Style Separator between two existing paragraphs:

You can use the style separator between two existing paragraphs so that the first paragraph becomes the lead-in text and appears in the TOC, and the second paragraph is the remainder of the text and does not appear in the TOC. To do this, follow these steps:

1. Create two paragraphs of text, placing text that you want to appear in the TOC in the first paragraph, the remainder of the text in the second paragraph.
2. Position the insertion point in the first paragraph, and then click the Style Separator button.

The two paragraphs appear to become a single paragraph by converting the paragraph mark at the end of the first paragraph to a style separator. You now have a single compound paragraph, which shows up as two separate paragraphs in Outline view, but which prints as a single paragraph.
3. Select the text to the left of the separator, click the drop-down arrow in the Style box on the Formatting toolbar, and then select the heading that you want.

The TOC displays only the lead-in portion (the first paragraph) formatted with the heading style.

NOTE: The style separator is a special form of a hidden paragraph mark. Therefore, documents with style separators that are created in Word 2002 and in later versions of Word appear the same in Word 2000 and in Microsoft Word 97 unless you click All under Formatting Marks. If you click All under Formatting Marks in earlier versions of Word, the style separator hidden paragraph mark appears as a normal paragraph mark, and the document will be repaginated.

When you use an earlier version of Word to view documents that have style separators that were created in Word 2002 and in later versions of Word, do not click All under Formatting Marks.


Removing a Heading from the Table of Contents
If you want to remove a heading from the TOC, you can apply a new paragraph style to the marked text:

1. Select the marked text, click the drop-down arrow in the Style box on the Formatting toolbar, and then select the heading that you want. (Click Normal to remove the heading style.)
2. Click Update TOC on the Outlining toolbar to update the TOC.

Note In Word 2007 or in Word 2010, click Update Table in the Table of Contents group on the References tab.
3. In the Update Table of Contents dialog box, click Update the Entire table, and then click OK.

Note In Word 2007 or in Word 2010, click Update the Entire table in the Update Table of Contents dialog box.

NOTE: By applying the paragraph style that you want to the whole paragraph, you do not remove the style. You must select the exact text as it appears in the TOC, and then apply the new style.

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REFERENCES
For more information about how to create a table of contents without changing t...
For more information about how to create a table of contents without changing the formatting of your text, click the following article number to view the article in the Microsoft Knowledge Base:
285050 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/285050/ ) How to use outline levels to create a table of contents in Word 2003 and in Word 2002
For more information about how to create table of content entries with no page number, click the following article number to view the article in the Microsoft Knowledge Base:
319821 (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/319821/ ) How to create table of contents entries without a page number in Microsoft Office Word
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Note This is a "FAST PUBLISH" article created directly from within the Microsoft support organization. The information contained herein is provided as-is in response to emerging issues. As a result of the speed in making it available, the materials may include typographical errors and may be revised at any time without notice. See Terms of Use (http://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkId=151500) for other considerations.
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APPLIES TO

* Microsoft Office Word 2007
* Microsoft Word 2002
* Microsoft Word 2010

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Keywords:
kbexpertisebeginner kbtable kbnewfile kbhowtomaster KB285059
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COMPARE AND CONTRAST PUBLIC AND PRIVATE ADMINISTRATION
Public administration is the implementation of government policy and an academic discipline that studies this implementation and that prepares civil servants for this work. Public administration
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


Public administration is both an academic discipline and a field of practice; the latter is depicted in this picture of US federal public servants at a meeting.
Public administration is the implementation of government policy and an academic discipline that studies this implementation and that prepares civil servants for this work.[1] As a "field of inquiry with a diverse scope" its "fundamental goal...is to advance management and policies so that government can function." [2] Some of the various definitions which have been offered for the term are: "the management of public programs";[3] the "translation of politics into the reality that citizens see every day";[4] and "the study of government decision making, the analysis of the policies themselves, the various inputs that have produced them, and the inputs necessary to produce alternative policies." [5]
Public administration is "centrally concerned with the organization of government policies and programmes as well as the behavior of officials (usually non-elected) formally responsible for their conduct" [6] Many unelected public servants can be considered to be public administrators, including police officers, municipal budget analysts, HR benefits administrators, city managers, Census analysts, and cabinet secretaries.[citation needed] Public administrators are public servants working in public departments and agencies, at all levels of government.[7]
In the US, civil servants and academics such as Woodrow Wilson promoted American civil service reform in the 1880s, moving public administration into academia.[8] However, "until the mid-20th century and the dissemination of the German sociologist Max Weber's theory of bureaucracy" there was not "much interest in a theory of public administration." [9] The field is multidisciplinary in character; one of the various proposals for public administration's sub-fields sets out five pillars, including human resources, organizational theory, policy analysis and statistics, budgeting, and ethics.[10]
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Definitions
• 2 History
o 2.1 Antiquity to the 19th century
o 2.2 US in the 1940s
 2.2.1 Post-World War II to the 1970s
o 2.3 1980s-1990s
o 2.4 Late 1990s-2000s
• 3 Core branches
• 4 Decision-making models
o 4.1 Niskanen's budget-maximizing
o 4.2 Dunleavy's bureau-shaping
• 5 As an academic field
o 5.1 Comparative public administration
o 5.2 Master's degrees
o 5.3 Doctoral degrees
o 5.4 Notable scholars
• 6 International public administration
• 7 See also
o 7.1 Societies for public administration
• 8 References
• 9 External links
• 10 Suggested reading

[edit] Definitions


Even in the digital age, public servants tend to work with both paper documents and computer files (pictured here is Stephen C. Dunn, Deputy Comptroller for the US Navy)
One scholar claims that "public administration has no generally accepted definition", because the "scope of the subject is so great and so debatable that it is easier to explain than define".[11] Public administration is a field of study (i.e., a discipline) and an occupation. There is much disagreement about whether the study of public administration can properly be called a discipline, largely because of the debate over whether public administration is a subfield of political science of a subfield of administrative science".[12] Scholar Donald Kettl is among those who view public administration "as a subfield within political science".[13]
The North American Industry Classification System definition of the Public Administration (NAICS 91) sector states that public administration "... comprises establishments primarily engaged in activities of a governmental nature, that is, the enactment and judicial interpretation of laws and their pursuant regulations, and the administration of programs based on them". This includes "Legislative activities, taxation, national defence, public order and safety, immigration services, foreign affairs and international assistance, and the administration of government programs are activities that are purely governmental in nature".[14]
[edit] History
[edit] Antiquity to the 19th century
Dating back to Antiquity, Pharaohs, kings and emperors have required pages, treasurers, and tax collectors to administer the practical business of government. Prior to the 19th century, staffing of most public administrations was rife with nepotism, favoritism, and political patronage, which was often referred to as a "spoils system". Public administrators have been the "eyes and ears" of rulers until relatively recently. In medieval times, the abilities to read and write, add and subtract were as dominated by the educated elite as public employment. Consequently, the need for expert civil servants whose ability to read and write formed the basis for developing expertise in such necessary activities as legal record-keeping, paying and feeding armies and levying taxes. As the European Imperialist age progressed and the militarily powers extended their hold over other continents and people, the need for a sophisticated public administration grew.
The eighteenth-century noble, King Frederick William I of Prussia, created professorates in Cameralism in an effort to train a new class of public administrators. The universities of Frankfurt an der Oder and University of Hallewere Prussian institutions emphasizing economic and social disciplines, with the goal of societal reform. Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi was the most well-known professor of Cameralism. Thus, from a Western European perspective, Classic, Medieval, and Enlightenment-era scholars formed the foundation of the discipline that has come to be called public administration.
Lorenz von Stein, an 1855 German professor from Vienna, is considered the founder of the science of public administration in many parts of the world. In the time of Von Stein, public administration was considered a form of administrative law, but Von Stein believed this concept too restrictive. Von Stein taught that public administration relies on many prestablished disciplines such as sociology, political science, administrative law and public finance. He called public administration an integrating science, and stated that public administrators should be concerned with both theory and practice. He argued that public administration is a science because knowledge is generated and evaluated according to the scientific method.
Modern American public administration is an extension of democratic governance, justified by classic and liberal philosophers of the western world ranging from Aristotle to John Locke[15] to Thomas Jefferson[16][17]


Woodrow Wilson‎
In the United States of America, Woodrow Wilson is considered the father of public administration. He first formally recognized public administration in an 1887 article entitled "The Study of Administration." The future president wrote that "it is the object of administrative study to discover, first, what government can properly and successfully do, and, secondly, how it can do these proper things with the utmost possible efficiency and at the least possible cost either of money or of energy."[18] Wilson was more influential to the science of public administration than Von Stein, primarily due to an article Wilson wrote in 1887 in which he advocated four concepts:
• Separation of politics and administration
• Comparative analysis of political and private organizations
• Improving efficiency with business-like practices and attitudes toward daily operations
• Improving the effectiveness of public service through management and by training civil servants, merit-based assessment
The separation of politics and administration has been the subject of lasting debate. The different perspectives regarding this dichotomy contribute to differentiating characteristics of the suggested generations of public administration.
[edit] US in the 1940s
The separation of politics and administration advocated by Wilson continues to play a significant role in public administration today. However, the dominance of this dichotomy was challenged by second generation scholars, beginning in the 1940s. Luther Gulick's fact-value dichotomy was a key contender for Wilson's proposed politics-administration dichotomy. In place of Wilson's first generation split, Gulick advocated a "seamless web of discretion and interaction".[19]


Luther Gulick (1892–1993) was an expert on public administration.
Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick are two second-generation scholars. Gulick, Urwick, and the new generation of administrators built on the work of contemporary behavioral, administrative, and organizational scholars including Henri Fayol, Fredrick Winslow Taylor, Paul Appleby, Frank Goodnow, and Willam Willoughby. The new generation of organizational theories no longer relied upon logical assumptions and generalizations about human nature like classical and enlightened theorists.
Gulick developed a comprehensive, generic theory of organization that emphasized the scientific method, efficiency, professionalism, structural reform, and executive control. Gulick summarized the duties of administrators with an acronym; POSDCORB, which stands for planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting. Fayol developed a systematic, 14-point, treatment of private management. Second-generation theorists drew upon private management practices for administrative sciences. A single, generic management theory bleeding the borders between the private and the public sector was thought to be possible. With the general theory, the administrative theory could be focused on governmental organizations.
[edit] Post-World War II to the 1970s
The mid-1940s theorists challenged Wilson and Gulick. The politics-administration dichotomy remained the center of criticism. In the 1960s and 1970s, government itself came under fire as ineffective, inefficient, and largely a wasted effort. The costly American intervention in Vietnam along with domestic scandals including the bugging of Democratic party headquarters (the 1974 Watergate scandal) are two examples of self-destructive government behavior that alienated citizens.


The costly Vietnam War alienated US citizens from their government (pictured is Operation Linebacker II, a US bombing operation in December 1972)
There was a call by citizens for efficient administration to replace ineffective, wasteful bureaucracy. Public administration would have to distance itself from politics to answer this call and remain effective. Elected officials supported these reforms. The Hoover Commission, chaired by University of Chicago professor Louis Brownlow, to examine reorganization of government. Brownlow subsequently founded the Public Administration Service (PAS) at the university, an organization which has provided consulting services to all levels of government until the 1970s.[citation needed]
[edit] 1980s-1990s
In the late 1980s, yet another generation of public administration theorists began to displace the last. The new theory, which came to be called New Public Management, was proposed by David Osborne and Ted Gaebler in their book Reinventing Government.[20] The new model advocated the use of private sector-style models, organizational ideas and values to improve the efficiency and service-orientation of the public sector. During the Clinton Administration (1992–2000), Vice President Al Gore adopted and reformed federal agencies using NPM approaches. In the 1990s, new public management became prevalent throughout the bureaucracies of the US, the UK and, to a lesser extent, in Canada.
Some modern authors define NPM as a combination of splitting large bureaucracies into smaller, more fragmented agencies, encouraging competition between different public agencies, and encouraging competition between public agencies and private firms and using economic incentives lines (e.g., performance pay for senior executives or user-pay models).[21] NPM treats individuals as "customers" or "clients" (in the private sector sense), rather than as citizens.[22]
Some critics argue that the New Public Management concept of treating people as "customers" rather than "citizens" is an inappropriate borrowing from the private sector model, because businesses see customers are a means to an end (profit), rather than as the proprietors of government (the owners), opposed to merely the customers of a business (the patrons). In New Public Management, people are viewed as economic units not democratic participants. Nevertheless, the model is still widely accepted at all levels of government and in many OECD nations.
[edit] Late 1990s-2000s
In the late 1990s, Janet and Robert Denhardt proposed a new public service model in response to the dominance of NPM.[23] A successor to NPM is digital era governance, focusing on themes of reintegrating government responsibilities, needs-based holism (executing duties in cursive ways), and digitalization (exploiting the transformational capabilities of modern IT and digital storage).One example of this is openforum.com.au, an Australian non-for-profit eDemocracy project which invites politicians, senior public servants, academics, business people and other key stakeholders to engage in high-level policy debate.
Another new public service model is what has been called New Public Governance, an approach which includes a centralization of power; an increased number, role and influence of partisan-political staff; personal-politicization of appointments to the senior public service; and, the assumption that the public service is promiscuously partisan for the government of the day [24]
[edit] Core branches
In academia, the fields of public administration, consists of a number of sub-fields. Scholars have proposed a number of different sets of sub-fields. One of the proposed models uses five "pillars":[25]
• Human resource management is an in-house structure that ensures that public service staffing is done in an unbiased, ethical and values-based manner. The basic functions of the HR system are employee benefits, employee health care, compensation, etc.
• Organizational Theory in Public Administration is the study of the structure of governmental entities and the many particulars inculcated in them.
• Ethics in public administration serves as a normative approach to decision making.
• Policy analysis serves as an empirical approach to decision making.
• Public budgeting is the activity within a government that seeks to allocate scarce resources among unlimited demands.
[edit] Decision-making models

This section does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2010)

Given the array of duties public administrators find themselves performing, the professional administrator might refer to a theoretical framework from which he or she might work. Indeed, many public and private administrative scholars have devised and modified decision-making models.
[edit] Niskanen's budget-maximizing
In 1971, Professor William Niskanen proposed a rational choice variation which he called the "budget-maximizing model". He claimed that rational bureaucrats will universally seek to increase the budgets of their units (to enhance their stature), thereby contributing to state growth and increased public expenditure. Niskanen served on President Reagan's Council of Economic Advisors; his model underpinned what has been touted as curtailed public spending and increased privatization. However, budgeted expenditures and the growing deficit during the Reagan administration is evidence of a different reality. A range of pluralist authors have critiqued Niskanen's universalist approach. These scholars have argued that officials tend also to be motivated by considerations of the public interest.
[edit] Dunleavy's bureau-shaping
The bureau-shaping model, a modification of Niskanen, holds that rational bureaucrats only maximize the part of their budget that they spend on their own agency's operations or give to contractors and interest groups. Groups that are able to organize a "flowback" of benefits to senior officials would, according to this theory, receive increased budgetary attention. For instance, rational officials will get no benefit from paying out larger welfare checks to millions of low-income citizens because this does not serve a bureaucrats' goals. Accordingly, one might instead expect a jurisdiction to seek budget increases for defense and security purposes in place of domestic social programming. If we refer back to Reagan once again, Dunleavy's bureau shaping model accounts for the alleged decrease in the "size" of government while spending did not, in fact, decrease. Domestic entitlement programming was financially de-emphasized for military research and personnel.
[edit] As an academic field
See also: Master of Public Administration and Doctor of Public Administration
In the United States, the academic field of public administration draws heavily on political science and administrative law. Some MPA programs include economics courses to give students a background in microeconomic issues (markets, rationing mechanisms, etc) and macroeconomic issues (e.g., national debt). Scholars such as John A. Rohr write of a long history behind the constitutional legitimacy of government bureaucracy. In Europe (notably in Britain and Germany), the divergence of the field from other disciplines can be traced to the 1720s continental university curriculum. Formally, official academic distinctions were made in the 1910s and 1890s, respectively.
The goals of the field of public administration are related to the democratic values of improving equality, justice, security, efficiency, effectiveness of public services usually in a non-profit, non-taxable venue; business administration, on the other hand, is primarily concerned with taxable profit. For a field built on concepts (accountability, governance, decentralization, clientele), these concepts are often ill-defined and typologies often ignore certain aspects of these concepts (Dubois & Fattore 2009).[26]
One minor tradition that the more specific term "public management" refers to ordinary, routine or typical management concerns, in the context of achieving public good. Others argue that "public management" refers to a newer, market-driven perspective on the operation of government. This latter view is often called "new public management" by its advocates. New Public Management represents a reform attempt, aimed at reemphasizing the professional nature of the field[citation needed]. This will replace the academic, moral or disciplinary emphasis. Some theorists advocate a bright line differentiation of the professional field from related academic disciplines like political science and sociology; it remains interdisciplinary in nature.
One public administration scholar, Donald Kettl, argues that "...public administration sits in a disciplinary backwater", because "...[f]or the last generation, scholars have sought to save or replace it with fields of study like implementation, public management, and formal bureaucratic theory".[27] Kettl states that "public administration, as a subfield within political science...is struggling to define its role within the discipline".[28] He notes two problems with public administration: it "has seemed methodologically to lag behind" and "the field’s theoretical work too often seems not to define it"-indeed, "some of the most interesting recent ideas in public administration have come from outside the field".[29]
Public administration theory is the domain in which discussions of the meaning and purpose of government, the role of bureaucracy in supporting democratic governments, budgets, governance, and public affairs takes place. In recent years, public administration theory has periodically connoted a heavy orientation toward critical theory and postmodern philosophical notions of government, governance, and power. However, many public administration scholars support a classic definition of the term emphasizing constitutionality, public service, bureaucratic forms of organization, and hierarchical government.
[edit] Comparative public administration
Comparative public administration is defined as the study of administrative systems in a comparative fashion or the study of public administration in other countries.[30] Another definition for "comparative public administration" is the "quest for patterns and regularities in administrative action and behavior".[31] There have been several issues which have hampered the development of comparative public administration, including: the major differences between Western countries and developing countries; the lack of curriculum on this subfield in public administration programs; and the lack of success in developing theoretical models which can be scientifically tested.[32]
Comparative public administration studies can compare different types of states at the same time, such as religious states vs. secular states or authoritarian states vs. democratic states. Even though public administration systems vary a great deal, there are some common elements which they all share which can be compared, such as the recruitment of bureaucrats and common programs which all governments have (e.g., a taxation regime) and common roles (e.g., rule-making).[33]
[edit] Master's degrees


The Knapp-Sanders Building, the home of the School of Government at the University of North Carolina.
As a field, public administration can be compared to business administration, and the master of public administration (MPA) viewed as similar to a master of business administration (MBA) for those wishing to pursue governmental or non-profit careers. An MPA often emphasizes substantially different ethical and sociological criteria that are traditionally secondary to that of profit for business administrators. The MPA is related to similar graduate level government studies including MA programs in public affairs, public policy, and political science. Differences often include program emphases on policy analysis techniques or other topical focuses such as the study of international affairs as opposed to focuses on constitutional issues such as separation of powers, administrative law, problems of governance and power, and participatory democracy.
[edit] Doctoral degrees
There are two types of doctoral degrees in public administration: the Doctor of Public Administration and the Ph.D. in Public Administration. The Doctor of Public Administration (DPA) is an applied-research doctoral degree in the field of public administration, focusing on practice. The DPA requires a dissertation and significant coursework beyond the Masters level. Upon successful completion of the doctoral requirements, the title of "Doctor" is awarded and the post-nominals of D.P.A. are often added. Some universities use the Ph.D. as their doctoral degree in public administration (e.g., Carleton University in Ottawa, Canada).
[edit] Notable scholars
Notable scholars of public administration have come from a range of fields. In the period before public administration existed as its own independent discipline, scholars contributing to the field came from economics, sociology, management, political science, administrative law, and, other related fields. More recently, scholars from public administration and public policy have contributed important studies and theories. For a longer list of academics and theorists, see the List of notable public administration scholars article.
[edit] International public administration
There are several organizations that are active. The oldest is the International Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration (IASIA). Based in Brussels, Belgium, IASIA is an association of organizations and individuals whose activities and interests focus on public administration and management. The activities of its members include education and training of administrators and managers. It is the only worldwide scholarly association in the field of public management.[34] Also the International Committee of the US-based National Association of School of Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA) has developed a number of relationships around the world. They include sub regional and National forums like CLAD, INPAE and NISPAcee, APSA, ASPA.[35]
The Center for Latin American Administration for Development (CLAD), based in Caracas, Venezuela, this regional network of schools of public administration set up by the governments in Latin America is the oldest in the region.[36] The Institute is a founding member and played a central role in organizing the Inter-American Network of Public Administration Education (INPAE). Created in 2000, this regional network of schools is unique in that it is the only organization to be composed of institutions from North and Latin America and the Caribbean working in public administration and policy analysis. It has more than 49 members from top research schools in various countries throughout the hemisphere.[37]
NISPAcee is a network of experts, scholars and practitioners who work in the field of public administration in Central and Eastern Europe, including the Russian Federation and the Caucasus and Central Asia.[38] The US public administration and political science associations like NASPA, American Political Science Association (APSA)[39] and American Society of Public Administration (ASPA).[40] These organizations have helped to create the fundamental establishment of modern public administration.
[edit] See also

Book:Public administration

Books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print.
• Administration (government)
• Administrative law
• Budgeting
• Bureaucracy
• Civil society
• Doctor of Public Administration
• Municipal government
• Politics
• Professional administration
• Public management — focusing on the efficiency and effectiveness of a government
• Public administration theory
• Public policy
• Public policy schools
• Theories of administration
o Max Weber
[edit] Societies for public administration
• American Society for Public Administration
• Chinese Public Administration Society
• Institute for Public Administration in Canada
• Dutch Association for Public Administration
• Royal Institute for Public Administration
• Korea Institute of Public Administration
[edit] References

Constructs such as ibid. and loc. cit. are discouraged by Wikipedia's style guide for footnotes, as they are easily broken. Please improve this article by replacing them with named references (quick guide), or an abbreviated title.

1. ^ Random House Unabridged Dictionary
2. ^ Handbook of Public Administration. Eds Jack Rabin, W. Bartley Hildreth, and Gerard J. Miller. 1989: Marcel Dekker, NY. p. iii
3. ^ Robert and Janet Denhardt. Public Administration: An Action Orientation. 6th Ed. 2009: Thomson Wadsworth, Belmont CA.
4. ^ Kettl, Donald and James Fessler. 2009. The Politics of the Administrative Process. Washington D.C.: CQ Press.
5. ^ Jerome B. McKinney and Lawrence C. Howard. Public Administration: Balancing Power and Accountability. 2nd Ed. 1998: Praeger Publishing, Westport, CT. p. 62
6. ^ UN Economic and Social Council. Committee of Experts on Public Administration. Definition of basic concepts and terminologies in governance and public administration. 2006
7. ^ Ibid
8. ^ Wilson, Woodrow. June, 1887. The Study of Administration, Political Science Quarterly 2.
9. ^ Public administration. (2010) In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved August 18, 2010, from Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
10. ^ Shafritz, J.M., A.C. Hyde. 2007. Classics of Public Administration. Wadsworth: Boston.
11. ^ Kernaghan, Kenneth. "Public administration" in The Canadian Encyclopedia. Available online at: http://thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0006540Accessed August 20, 2010.
12. ^ Kernaghan, Kenneth. "Public administration" in The Canadian Encyclopedia. Available online at: http://thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0006540Accessed August 20, 2010.
13. ^ THE FUTURE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION by Donald F. Kettl. Available online at: http://www.h-net.org/~pubadmin/tfreport/kettl.pdf Accessed on October 25, 2010.
14. ^ Definition Public Administration (NAICS 91). Available online at: http://www.ic.gc.ca/cis-sic/cis-sic.nsf/IDE/cis-sic91defe.html Accessed October 25, 2010
15. ^ Second Treatise on Government
16. ^ Declaration of Independence
17. ^ Ryan, M., Mejia, B., and Georgiev, M. (Ed). 2010. AM Gov 2010. McGraw Hill: New York.
18. ^ Wilson, W. 1887.
19. ^ Fry, Brian R. 1989. Mastering Public Administration; from Max Weber to Dwight Waldo. Chatham, New Jersey: Chatham House Publishers, Inc. page 80
20. ^ Public Administration Review, Vol. 56, No. 3 (May – Jun., 1996), pp. 247–255
21. ^ Patrick Dunleavy, Helen Margetts et al, 'New public management is dead: Long live digital era governance',Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, (July 2006).
22. ^ Diane Stone, (2008) 'Global Public Policy, Transnational Policy Communities and their Networks,' Journal of Policy Sciences.
23. ^ Denhardt , Robert B. and Janet Vinzant Denhardt (2000). "The New Public Service: Serving Rather than Steering." Public Administration Review 60(6)
24. ^ Aucoin, Peter (2008). New Public Management and the Quality of Government: Coping with the New Political Governance in Canada, Conference on "New Public Management and the Quality of Government", SOG and the Quality of Government Institute, University of Gothenburg, Sweden, 13–15 November 2008, p.14.
25. ^ Shafritz and Hyde. 2009.
26. ^ Dubois, Hans F. W.; Fattore, Giovanni (2009). International Journal of Public Administration. 32. Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 704–727. doi:10.1080/01900690902908760. "The field of public administration knows many concepts. By focusing on one such concept, this research shows how definitions can be deceptive..."
27. ^ THE FUTURE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION by Donald F. Kettl. Available online at: http://www.h-net.org/~pubadmin/tfreport/kettl.pdf Accessed on October 25, 2010.
28. ^ THE FUTURE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION by Donald F. Kettl. Available online at: http://www.h-net.org/~pubadmin/tfreport/kettl.pdf Accessed on October 25, 2010.
29. ^ THE FUTURE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION by Donald F. Kettl. Available online at: http://www.h-net.org/~pubadmin/tfreport/kettl.pdf Accessed on October 25, 2010.
30. ^ Haroon A. Khan. Introduction to Public Administration. University Press of America, 2008. P. 33
31. ^ Haroon A. Khan. Introduction to Public Administration. University Press of America, 2008. p. 33
32. ^ Haroon A. Khan. Introduction to Public Administration. University Press of America, 2008 p. 34
33. ^ www.powershow.com/view/.../Comparative_Public_Administratio
34. ^ www.iiasiisa.be/schools/aeacc.htm
35. ^ http://www.GlobalMPA.net
36. ^ http://www.clad.org.ve
37. ^ http://www.ebape.fgv.br/inpae
38. ^ http://www.nispa.sk/_portal/homepage.php
39. ^ http://www.apsanet.org
40. ^ http://www.aspanet.org
Dubois, H.F.W. & Fattore, G. (2009), 'Definitions and typologies in public administration research: the case of decentralization', International Journal of Public Administration, 32(8): pp. 704–727.
[edit] External links
• Gov Monitor: A public administration, policy and public sector website
• Public Administration Theory Network (PAT-Net) : This is an international network of professionals concerned with the advancement of public administration theory.
• United Nations Public Administration Network (UNPAN): A body which aims to establish an Internet-based network that links regional and national institutions devoted to public administration.
[edit] Suggested reading
• Smith, Kevin B. and Licari, Michael J. Public Administration — Power and Politics in the Fourth Branch of Government, ISBN 1-933220-04-X
• White,Jay D. and Guy B. Adams. Research in public administration: reflections on theory and practice‎.1994.
[hide]
v • d • e
Civil Service in the Executive Branch of Government


Concepts Government agency • Bureaucracy • Bureaucrat • Public administration • Public services • Public policy • Public sector


Terminology Undersecretary • Commissioner • Diplomatic service


International
civil services Australia • Bangladesh • Brazil • Canada • China • European Union • France • Germany (Beamter) • Hong Kong • India • Ireland • Italy • Japan • Malaysia • New Zealand • Nigeria • Northern Ireland • Pakistan • Singapore • Sri Lanka • United Kingdom • United States


Categories Government occupations • Civil service by country


See also: Civil service reform in developing countries • Imperial examination (Ancient China)


Categories: Public administration | Social sciences | Public policy | Subfields of political science | Management science | Management education
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PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION VS. PRIVATE ADMINISTRATION
The overall objective of this research paper is to compare and contrast public administration versus private administration, as well as their similarities and differences. To begin with, I should like to proffer a definition of both private administration and public administration. To a larger extent, it is the belief of this author that there are more similarities than differences when considering private administration versus public administration. At the same time, I will attempt to identify these largely in terms of their similarities and differences. Public administration may apply to a broad variety of services. According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, public administration is defined as the body of persons that constitutes the governing authority of a political unit or organization; the officials comprising the governing body of a political unit and constituting the organization as an active agency; and finally, a small group of persons holding simultaneously the principle political objective offices of a nation or other political unit and being responsible for the direction and supervision of public affairs. The Me..
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Most authors differentiate public administration and private administration by educational institutions (public schools vs. private schools). Although it's a good example to provide a comprehensive analysis between the two sectors, I found it not the quintessence for a comparative analysis. Historically, in our country, public schools have a much higher quality education than private schools, and studying economics and public administration, it is not just the nature of bureaucracies, nor the scope of public administration that the case today was reversed. While some authors identified over a dozen factors that differentiates public to private administration, Denhardt only speaks of the three fundamental differences between the two. In this paper, I would elaborate Denhardt's three points since, together with economist Boadway's Difference between Public and Private Sector, I found these as the most undisputable and concrete comparisons.
The most apparent difference between the two sectors is their organizing principles or goal. (Denhardt) While private administration has a definite mission, which is the pursuit of profit or stability or growth of revenues, public administration, on the other hand, has ambiguous purposes. Furthermore, the dilemma in ambiguity of purposes is exacerbated by too many unnecessary and inoperable agencies, with purposes that overlap and bloated bureaucracies. One might say that the goal of public administration is to enact public policies, but the overlapping and the main ambiguity of most of these policies, and the vagueness of the enactment of these policies make public administration's purpose to be more ambiguous. Nevertheless, the fact that public institutions are not profit driven, should not lead us to believe that public sector employees and managers are not concerned about financial matters. As is the case with private companies, public sector units and organizations fight for funding and influence.
Another factor that makes the public sector different from the private is decision making. (Denhradt) In public administration, the decision must be and should be pluralistic. The founding fathers intentionally created a democratic republic where all key decisions are made in politicized environment. This allows for maximum participation: open debate, multiple veto points - a decision making hierarchy where consensus must be achieved at each level, ideally, an informed decision. While private administration's decision-making is much more simple- it's monopolistic or close to monopolistic. This type of decision-making would avoid any conflicts in interest; hence, the goal is clearly defined.
The visibility of public administrators is another notable difference between public and private sector. While a manager in a private business may work in relative obscurity, the public manager must operate in the public eye. His or her actions are constantly subjected to public scrutiny. (Denhardt) The publicness of the work of the public manager doesn't end in merely carrying out public policy, the public manager has to respond to the demands of the public. Denhardt speaks of the "inevitable tension" between efficiency and responsiveness, the pressure to manage effectively and to be simultaneously responsive to public concerns. This pressure often leaves public organizations in a "no-win" situation, trying to serve a public that demands effective government but balks at paying for it (taxes). The public also demands accountability in government, an assurance that those who formulate, implement and administer public programs will act responsibly.
One quality that makes public sector different from private is in the form of unit analysis. (Boadway) Apart from publicly owned-companies, most public institutions are part of a larger chain of command and control where it is harder to draw a line between the different parts of the system- and where legal frameworks provide little help in this. For instance: public agencies- like research councils or directorates of health- interact closely with ministries as well as subordinate institution and "users". The innovation activities in these institutions are heavily influenced by decisions made above and below the chain of commands. The closest parallel to private sector will be large conglomerates or multinational companies. The complex system of organizations with various (and to some extent conflicting) tasks, is one of the reasons for the inefficiency of public administration. Although, some authors in public administration, such Woodrow Wilson in The Study of Public Administration, where he reiterated that the evolution of public administration together with its complex system and increasing number of bureaucracies is to complement the population growth, but a population with sufficient number of agencies to manage them and with high marginal productivity for each public employee, is better than a bloated bureaucracy with little or zero marginal productivity, and worse, unnecessary and redundant purpose.
Lastly, although political aspect is both apparent in public and private sector, political aspect is more important in the public than in the private sector. Policy decisions normally affect companies directly and indirectly, through laws, regulations and financial support. The public sector is at least formally controlled by elected politicians. The intimate link between this governance dimension and funding of current expenses of the activities implies a very strong link between ownership and control on the one hand and the growth strategies of the subsidiary organizations.
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Cherry_Lyn_Beldia



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Public Vs. Private Administration Data
By MichelleS, eHow Contributor
updated: November 23, 2010
Public administration encompasses the individuals and processes that carry out laws, rules, and regulations that are issued by legislatures or other elected officials. Private administration refers to the individuals and processes that carry out the manufacturing, marketing, retailing, and providing of goods and services in exchange for payment. Public administration must handle data different from private administrations.
Federal Administration Data
1. The Freedom of Information Act states that federal government data is subject to full or partial disclosure, depending on the type of information and government agency. An individual may request in writing federal administration data and the public administration responsible for that data must provide it within 10 days. However, the data is off limits if it involves national security or personal information.
State and Local Administration Data
2. State and local government enact their own laws regarding public administration data. The main differences between federal, state, and local laws are the time in which the agency must provide data and fees charged.
Private Administration Data
3. The Freedom of Information Act does not apply to private administration data. Individuals do not have the right to obtain information about a private business or industry. Government agencies require private administrations to report certain data, such as earnings, employee demographics, time records, and other law requirements to the specific government entity. However, the public does not have access to that data.
References
• Freedom of Information Act
• Milakovich, Michael, E. and Gordon, George, J. (2004). Public Administration in America. Belmont, CA; Wadsworth/Thomson Learning
Resources
• The Open Government Guide
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Distinctions between public administration and private action

Activities such as traffic control, fire-protection services, policing, smoke abatement, the construction or repair of highways, the provision of currency, town and country planning, and the collection of customs and excise duties are usually carried out by governments, whose executive organs are assumed to represent the collective will of the community and to be acting for the common good. It is for this reason that they are given powers not normally conferred on private persons. They may be authorized to infri

Application software

Application software, also known as an application, is a computer software designed to help the user to perform singular or multiple related specific tasks. Examples include enterprise software, accounting software, office suites, graphics software, and media players.

Application software is contrasted with system software and middleware, which manage and integrate a computer's capabilities, but typically do not directly apply them in the performance of tasks that benefit the user. A simple, if imperfect analogy in the world of hardware would be the relationship of an electric light bulb (an application) to an electric power generation plant (a system). The power plant merely generates electricity, not itself of any real use until harnessed to an application like the electric light that performs a service that benefits the user.
n computer science, an application is a computer program designed to help people perform an activity. An application thus differs from an operating system (which runs a computer), a utility (which performs maintenance or general-purpose chores), and a programming language (with which computer programs are created). Depending on the activity for which it was designed, an application can manipulate text, numbers, graphics, or a combination of these elements. Some application packages offer considerable computing power by focusing on a single task, such as word processing; others, called integrated software, offer somewhat less power but include several applications.[1] User-written software tailors systems to meet the user's specific needs. User-written software include spreadsheet templates, word processor macros, scientific simulations, graphics and animation scripts. Even email filters are a kind of user software. Users create this software themselves and often overlook how important it is. The delineation between system software such as operating systems and application software is not exact, however, and is occasionally the object of controversy. For example, one of the key questions in the United States v. Microsoft antitrust trial was whether Microsoft's Internet Explorer web browser was part of its Windows operating system or a separable piece of application software. As another example, the GNU/Linux naming controversy is, in part, due to disagreement about the relationship between the Linux kernel and the operating systems built over this kernel. In some types of embedded systems, the application software and the operating system software may be indistinguishable to the user, as in the case of software used to control a VCR, DVD player or microwave oven. The above definitions may exclude some applications that may exist on some computers in large organizations. For an alternative definition of an application: see Application Portfolio Management.
[edit] Application software classification

There are many types of application software:

* An application suite consists of multiple applications bundled together. They usually have related functions, features and user interfaces, and may be able to interact with each other, e.g. open each other's files. Business applications often come in suites, e.g. Microsoft Office, OpenOffice.org, and iWork, which bundle together a word processor, a spreadsheet, etc.; but suites exist for other purposes, e.g. graphics or music.
* Enterprise software addresses the needs of organization processes and data flow, often in a large distributed environment. (Examples include financial systems, customer relationship management (CRM) systems, and supply-chain management software). Note that Departmental Software is a sub-type of Enterprise Software with a focus on smaller organizations or groups within a large organization. (Examples include Travel Expense Management, and IT Helpdesk)
* Enterprise infrastructure software provides common capabilities needed to support enterprise software systems. (Examples include databases, email servers, and systems for managing networks and security.)
* Information worker software addresses the needs of individuals to create and manage information, often for individual projects within a department, in contrast to enterprise management. Examples include time management, resource management, documentation tools, analytical, and collaborative. Word processors, spreadsheets, email and blog clients, personal information system, and individual media editors may aid in multiple information worker tasks.
* Content access software is software used primarily to access content without editing, but may include software that allows for content editing. Such software addresses the needs of individuals and groups to consume digital entertainment and published digital content. (Examples include Media Players, Web Browsers, Help browsers, and Games)
* Educational software is related to content access software, but has the content and/or features adapted for use in by educators or students. For example, it may deliver evaluations (tests), track progress through material, or include collaborative capabilities.
* Simulation software are computer software for simulation of physical or abstract systems for either research, training or entertainment purposes.
* Media development software addresses the needs of individuals who generate print and electronic media for others to consume, most often in a commercial or educational setting. This includes Graphic Art software, Desktop Publishing software, Multimedia Development software, HTML editors, Digital Animation editors, Digital Audio and Video composition, and many others.[2]
* Mobile applications run on hand-held devices such as mobile phones, personal digital assistants, and enterprise digital assistants : see mobile application development.
* Product engineering software is used in developing hardware and software products. This includes computer aided design (CAD), computer aided engineering (CAE), computer language editing and compiling tools, Integrated Development Environments, and Application Programmer Interfaces. YUH ZEIT * A command-driven interface is one in which you type in commands to make the computer do something. You have to know the commands and what they do and they have to be typed correctly. DOS and Unix are examples of command-driven interfaces.
* A graphical user interface (GUI) is one in which you select command choices from various menus, buttons and icons using a mouse. It is a user-friendly interface. The Windows and Mac OS are both graphical user interfaces.

Information worker software

* Time and Resource Management
o Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems
o Accounting software
o Task and Scheduling
o Field service management software
* Data Management
o Contact Management
o Spreadsheet
o Personal Database
* Documentation
o Document Automation/Assembly
o Word Processing
o Desktop publishing software
o Diagramming Software
o Presentation software
* Analytical software
o Computer algebra systems
o Numerical computing
+ List of numerical software
o Physics software
o Science software
o List of statistical software
o Neural network software
* Collaborative software
o E-mail
o Blog
o Wiki
* Reservation systems
* Financial Software
o Day trading software
o Banking systems
o Clearing systems



*
o airthmetic software

[edit] Content access software

* Electronic media software
o Web browser
o Media Players
o Hybrid editor players

[edit] Entertainment software

* Digital pets
* Screen savers
* Video Games
o Arcade games
o Emulators for console games
o Personal computer games
o Console games
o Mobile games

[edit] Educational software

* Classroom Management
* Learning/Training Management Software
* Reference software
* Sales Readiness Software
* Survey Management

[edit] Enterprise infrastructure software

* Business workflow software
* Database management system (DBMS) software
* Digital asset management (DAM) software
* Document Management software
* Geographic Information System (GIS) software

[edit] Simulation software

* Computer simulators
o Scientific simulators
o Social simulators
o Battlefield simulators
o Emergency simulators
o Vehicle simulators
+ Flight simulators
+ Driving simulators
o Simulation games
+ Vehicle simulation games


[edit] Media development software

* Image organizer
* Media content creating/editing
o 3D computer graphics software
o Animation software
o Graphic art software
o Image editing software
+ Raster graphics editor
+ Vector graphics editor
o Video editing software
o Sound editing software
+ Digital audio editor
o Music sequencer
+ Scorewriter
o Hypermedia editing software
+ Web Development Software

[edit] Product engineering software

* Hardware Engineering
o Computer-aided engineering
o Computer-aided design (CAD)
o Finite Element Analysis
* Software Engineering
o Computer Language Editor
o Compiler Software
o Integrated Development Environments
o Game creation software
o Debuggers
o Program testing tools
o License manager

awesome

google tool bar just as awesome as amazon

in reference to: Get started with Google Toolbar : Install or uninstall - Toolbar Help (view on Google Sidewiki)

AIESEC INTERNSHIP AND OPPORTUNITIES

Technology Internships
(including Volunteer Work)


AIESEC

AIESEC is the world's largest student organization. The AIESEC Exchange Program connects students and recent graduates with internship opportunities in a network of 97 countries. Each year, over 4,000 participants have the opportunity to work in a foreign country in the areas of management, information technology, education, and development.

AIESEC International
Teilingerstraat 126
3032-AW Rotterdam
The Netherlands
Phone: +31 10 443 4383
Fax: +31 10 265 1386
Email: info@ai.aiesec.org
Website: www.aiesec.org

AIESEC Canada
30 Duncan St., Suite 602
Toronto, ON M5V 2C3
Phone: (416) 368-1001
Fax: (416) 368-4490
Email: info@aiesec.ca
Website: www.aiesec.ca

Association for International Practical Training (AIPT)

AIPT is a non-profit organization that provides support to students, early-career professionals, businesses, and attorneys seeking to expand their involvement in the global arena. AIPT sponsors non-American citizens for on-the-job training experiences in the U.S. through the J-1 exchange visitor visa. AIPT also assists American students and professionals through international, on-the-job training experiences.

AIPT
10400 Little Patuxent Parkway
Suite 250
Columbia, MD 21044-3519

Phone: (410) 997-2200
Fax: (410) 992-3924
Email: aipt@aipt.org
Website: www.aipt.org

Career Edge Organization

Career Edge Organization is a private-sector, not-for-profit organization. It offers six, nine or 12-month paid internships within Canadian organizations for university and college graduates in a variety of fields, including information technology, marketing, human resources and finance. It also offers specialty programs for graduates with disabilities and internships for internationally qualified immigrant professionals in Canada.

Toronto Office
Phone: (416) 977-EDGE (3343)
Toll-free: 1-888-507-EDGE (3343)
Fax: (416) 977-4090
Email: info@careeredge.ca

Vancouver Office
Phone: (604) 601-8521
Fax: (604) 601-5241
Email: infovancouver@careeredge.ca

Website: www.careeredge.ca

Engineers Without Borders Canada

Engineers Without Borders Canada (EWB) is an independent, non-profit organization that works to help people in developing communities gain access to technologies that will improve their lives. EWB provides volunteer placements overseas for engineering students as well as non-engineering students. EWB offers 4-month placements and longer-term placements lasting 13 months.

Engineers Without Borders Canada - Ingénieurs Sans Frontières Canada
366 Adelaide Street West, Suite 601
Toronto, Ontario
M5V 1R9

Phone: (416) 481-3696
Toll free: 1 (866) 481-3696
Email: info@ewb.ca
Website: www.ewb.ca

Industry Canada, Community Access Program Youth Initiative

Industry Canada's Community Access Program Youth Initiative aims to provide employment opportunities for young Canadians between the ages of 15 and 30. Interns help individuals, community organizations and small businesses to improve their knowledge and effective use of the Internet and related information technologies.

Website: http://cap.ic.gc.ca

Industry Canada, Technical Work Experience Program (TWEP)

TWEP hires students and recent graduates from college/university information technology programs. TWEP offers paid, practical, first job experience in Computers for Schools (CFS) repair centres throughout Canada for a minimum of 13 weeks, with the possibility of an additional 13-week extension. CFS is a federal government-led program that collects, repairs and refurbishes donated surplus computers and distributes them to schools, public libraries and not-for-profit learning organizations throughout Canada.

Computers for Schools Program
Industry Canada
155 Queen Street
7th Floor
Ottawa, ON
K1A 0H5

Toll Free: 1-888-636-9899
Fax: (613) 957-1201
Email: cfs.ope@ic.gc.ca
Website: http://cfs-ope.ic.gc.ca

International Association for the Exchange of Students for Technical Experience (IAESTE)

IAESTE is a non-profit organization located in 80 countries. IAESTE's international exchange program enables students to combine travel with a career-related job. Students who are currently in full time attendance at a university or college studying engineering, technical sciences or technologies can be placed abroad. An application fee is required.

IAESTE Canada
P.O. Box 1473
Kingston, ON K7L 5C7

Phone: (613) 533-2030
Fax: (613) 533-6869
Email: canada@iaeste.org

Canada: www.queensu.ca/iaeste/
International: www.iaeste.org

International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), Emerging Leaders for Governance and Communication Program

IISD is a Canadian-based policy research institute that promotes sustainable development around the world through innovation, partnerships, research and communications. Its Emerging Leaders for Governance and Communication Program focuses on the use of information and communications technology to strengthen civil society organizations. The program includes an international work placement of six to eight months. The internship is offered to young Canadian postsecondary graduates who are unemployed or underemployed.

International Institute for Sustainable Development
161 Portage Avenue East, 6th Floor
Winnipeg, MB
Canada R3B 0Y4

Phone: (204) 958-7700
Fax: (204) 958-7710
Email: intern-info@iisd.ca
Website: www.iisd.org

Natural Resources Canada (NRCan), Science and Technology Internship Program

NRCan is a department of the Government of Canada that works to ensure the responsible development of Canada's natural resources, including energy, forests, minerals and metals. Its Science and Technology Internship Program provides an opportunity for recent graduates in science or engineering to gain relevant and meaningful work experience. Interested youth are encouraged to market themselves directly to eligible partners of NRCan as possible candidates for internships under this program.

Website: www.nrcan-rncan.gc.ca

NetCorps Canada International

NetCorps is a program funded by the Government of Canada that gives young Canadians the opportunity to participate in overseas placements involving international development and information and communication technologies. Placements last five to six months and are concentrated in Africa, Latin America, Asia and Eastern Europe.

NetCorps Canada International
2330, Notre-Dame Street West
2nd floor, Montreal (Quebec)
H3J 2Y2

Phone: (514) 937-1614
Fax: (514) 937-9452
Email: secretariat@netcorps-cyberjeunes.org
Website: www.netcorps-cyberjeunes.org

Ontario Internship Program

The Ontario Internship Program is a paid, two-year, entry-level employment opportunity that provides career development in key professional fields across the Ontario Public Service. The program is open to recent university and college graduates with limited work experience. Positions are offered in the areas of business and financial planning, communications, human resources, information and information technology, labour relations, policy development and project management.

Phone: 1-888-JOB-GROW (1-888-562-4769)
Email: opsintern@ontario.ca
Website: www.internship.gov.on.ca

United Nations International Computing Centre

The International Computing Centre (ICC) is a United Nations facility with the mission to deliver high quality information and communications technology services to United Nations organizations worldwide. ICC provides internships to final year or recently graduated university students specializing in information technology or other relevant disciplines.

International Computing Centre
Internship Programme
Palais des Nations
1211 Geneva 10
Switzerland

Email: personnel@unicc.org
Website: www.unicc.org

WestLink Innovation Network, Technology Commercialization Internship Program

WestLink Innovation Network is a consortium of western Canadian Universities, colleges, research and technical institutions, working to address the innovation gap within Canada and beyond. Its Technology Commercialization Internship Program is a two-year placement program designed to build capacity for technology commercialization by providing skills and training to qualified individuals.

Sue Robinson
Internship Manager
WestLink Innovation Network Ltd.
Suite 301, 1220 Kensington Rd. NW
Calgary, Alberta T2N 3P5

Phone: (403) 974-8470 ext. 228
Fax: (403) 284-1773
Email: internship@westlink.ca
Website: www.westlink.ca